How is “Abenaki” pronounced?

Abenaki with the accent on the first syllable (A’ ben aki) is the English pronunciation commonly used in the United States. Occasionally you hear the name with the accent on the middle syllable (A ben’ aki); this is the Quebequois French pronunciation used in Eastern Canada. These are both acceptable, and both are mispronunciations of an old 17th century Northeastern North American Indigenous term meaning “person who dwells in the land of the Dawn (East).” You occasionally hear “A ber’ naki” with an “r”; this is a local Vermont dialect pronunciation.

How long have Abenakis been in Vermont?

The Vermont Abenakis know that they have always been here in the state, and this knowledge has basis in fact. Macro-Algonquin, the language group to which the Abenakis belong, is believed by scientists to be one of the oldest language groups in North America. Almost all Indigenous groups in the region speak descendants of macro Algonquin, demonstrating its great antiquity in the area. So it seems logical that the Abenakis’ ancestors have been here since the glaciers receded over 12 thousand years ago. Archaeologists believe that certain additional cultural traits may have come to Vermont from the south (Long Island to Chesapeake Bay area) in the Archaic Period, maybe 5,000 years ago; to complete the proto-Abenaki ethic mix. Later, many Abenakis were killed off in the 1530-1600 Contact Period by European diseases, and many others fled to avoid war during the Colonial Period of the 17th and 18th centuries. However a substantial number of families remained safe in Vermont before and after 1800, as proven by the wealth of materials they left, ranging from beadwork, snowshoes, baskets, bark canoes that can be found all over the state, often with stories of being made locally. The artifacts are complemented by newspaper articles, old photographs and memories of “Indian wigwams and longhouses.” There is no question that the Abenakis have always been in Vermont.

Who are the modern Vermont Abenaki communities, where are they located, and what is their political status?

The modern Vermont Abenakis’ ancient territory covers all of the State of Vermont except the southwestern corner, which is Mahican tribal territory. There are four main contemporary Vermont Abenaki communities: 1) Missisquoi in Northwestern Vermont focused in the Swanton area, 2) Nulhegan in the Northeast Kingdom, 3) Koas in the Upper Connecticut focused in the Newbury VT/Haverhill, NH area, and 4) Elnu in the Connecticut River Valley, focused in Brattleboro and Bellows Falls area. Each of these ancient regional communities has a modern political organization representing the interest of the people; each of which are accepted by the State of Vermont as legitimate Indian Tribes. The Elnu Abenaki and The Nulhegan Abenaki Tribe were acknowledged through State Recognition on April 22, 2011, while the Koasek Traditional Band of the Koas Abenaki Nation and the Abenaki Nation at Missisquoi were acknowledged through State Recognition a little over a year later, on May 7, 2012. However, there are many isolated families and small clusters of Abenaki families scattered throughout Vermont that are not part of these larger communities, but have been legally considered members of a Vermont minority class since 2006.

Do Vermont Abenakis have reservations?

No, but there are two Abenaki Reservations in Quebec; Odanak and Wôlinak. In Vermont, there are definite areas that may be considered “Indian Country”, where there are large concentrations of Abenakis. Two important areas are Swanton and Newbury, VT. There are also “reserved” areas that the Abenakis consider theirs. The most important of these are the ancestral Missisquoi Village and burial grounds along Monument Road in Swanton /Highgate, and the Nulhegan Tribal Forest in Barton.

How do the Abenakis relate to nearby tribes culturally, historically, and linguistically?

The Vermont Abenakis are the westernmost peoples of the ancient Wabanaki Confederacy, a political union of five linguistically and culturally related tribes also including the Penobscots (central Maine), Passamaquoddies (Eastern Maine), Maliseets (N. Maine, New Brunswick), and Mik’maqs (E. Quebec, N. Maine, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia). To the south are distantly related tribes, including the Wampanoags, Nipmucs and Mahicans of Massachusetts and E. New York. To the West and Northwest are the Mohawks, the well-known easternmost tribes of the Haudenosaunee or Iroquois Confederacy. Many of the Mohawk communities that were close to Vermont, such as Kahnawake, Kahnesetake (near Montreal) and Akwesasne (N. NY) were great allies in the past and maintain friendly relations to this day. North of the St. Lawrence River were (from West to East) the Algonquins, Attikameks and Innu people, ancient allies who speak languages distantly related to Abenaki.

What does it mean to be a Vermont Abenaki?

There is no simple answer, every person feels a bit differently about being Abenaki. There are three elements that each Vermont Abenaki person may consider and incorporate in their identity. The first is some form of family connection to their ethnic community. Probably most people learned of their Abenaki heritage from their parents or grandparents, and just accept it a being a part of their nature. To some, this nature is quite dilute, a minor but interesting element of who their family is, but has no immediacy to them.

The second is culture, for many it was learned within the family, others learned cultural elements later in life. Expressing a cultural identity involves going to a cultural gathering or two during the year, perhaps, having a bit of native art and literature displayed about their home to remind them about who they are. They may know a couple Abenaki stories that they have read, and a bit of knowledge of Native spirituality. In this way, Abenaki identity lends a measure of richness, diversity, meaning and depth to their life experience that can be shared with their family, and passed down to the next generation.

The third is commitment to the community. To some, Abenaki identity is the core of who they are. They are active in cultural spiritual and/or political events, they seek to earn as much as they can of Abenaki culture and incorporate it into their lives, and seek to use their knowledge and understanding to the service of their Native community.

What are the main Vermont Abenakis cultural events and activities?

The Vermont Abenakis have many annual events and ceremonies, some are open to the public. Probably the oldest public event is the Missisquoi Abenaki Heritage Days celebrations, that began in May, 1993 in Highgate, Vermont. Unfortunately, it ended in 2010. Today, it has an celebration in a weekend celebration in late June at the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum that includes music, lectures and other programming. There are other events such as the annual gathering of the Nulhegan Band (various locations), and the calendrical and agricultural ceremonies at the Indigenous Heritage Center. These include the Forgiveness Moon Commemoration in late December or early January, the Shooting Fire solstice ceremony in June, the Green Corn Ceremony in August and the Harvest Gathering in October.

What is the religion of the Vermont Abenakis?

These is no “official” Abenaki religion. Many Vermont Abenakis have relatively standard American religious beliefs, some are Catholic, some are Protestant, some secular humanism, others have other, fairly mainstream religious beliefs. However there are also traditional Abenaki ceremonies, often based on agricultural spirituality. These include the Field Blessing in May, the Green Corn Ceremony in August and the Harvest celebration in October. Distinct types of sweat lodges and pipe ceremonies, and calendrical rituals such as the Shooting Fire summer solstice ceremony and winter’s Forgiveness Moon are also practiced in Vermont. More complex and esoteric religious faith includes a belief in the “aliveness” of all creation, ancestral and other kinds of spirits, and the complex ways that the web of life and its destiny are woven together. Any given Abenaki may believe and practice some, none, or all of these.

What does modern Abenaki style clothing look like?

Many Abenakis like to wear just a touch of distinctive Native American clothing or jewelry, such as a silver ring or turquoise bracelet, or shell, bead or porcupine quill earrings. There are two basic styles of clothes worn for Abenaki ceremonies or tribal gatherings. The first style has a simple white (sometimes colored patterned) shirt or dress, derived from historic 19th century styles. The woman’s dress is worn over a skirt made of a heavy wool panel wrapped and tied around the waist and a pair leggings, tubes of wool tied below the knee. The man’s shirt is worn over a pair of pants or leggings hung from the belt with an apron in front and back. Often they are ornamented with reflective silver discs and colorful necklaces. A more modern style is a “ribbon shirt” or “ribbon dress” a colorful shirt or dress decorated with often complex stripes or patterns of contrasting satin ribbon. Regular pants or jeans are usually worn under the ribboned top. Colorful beaded necklaces, bracelets and rings are also worn.

Are there distinctive Vermont Abenaki foods and cuisine?

There are over 20 distinctive cultivated food crops with Vermont Abenaki origins. This list includes Calais corn, a relatively standard type of flint corm that makes excellent flour and hominy; Koas corn, a tiny 3 foot tall sweet corn; skunk beans, a tall, vigorous pole bean with large black and white beans; East Montpelier squash, a large tan squash with a dry sweet flesh that some say is the best tasting squash; the imposing 7 foot to 9 foot tall Morrisville sunflower with its huge seed heads of pure white seeds; and the strange but delicious tomatillo-like Hardwick Ground Cherry. These crops are traditionally grown on raised fish-fertilized mounds. There are distinctive meals such as the Green Corn Ceremony, focusing on roasted green corn and the Missisquoi Harvest Dinner, which has each family serve their distinctive dishes, such as roasted muskrat, or a special recipe for three sisters soup or a bear-meat stew to commemorate a recent trophy of a Missisquoi hunter.

I think that I have Abenaki ancestry. Can I become a tribal member or citizen?

It depends. Each of the Four Vermont Bands has set procedures for joining with different requirements and levels of rigor for acceptance. However, all require genealogical documentation of descendency from a known Abenaki (or in some cases, Native American) ancestor. It is best to get your genealogical information in order first, and remember that a simple DNA test is almost never accepted as evidence of Abenaki ancestry. Some tribes have more stringent requirements such as that your ancestry be from their tribal region or homeland, or that you commit to learning and practicing tribal culture. If you have good evidence of Abenaki ancestry, it is probably best that you contact the closest tribe to the place where your descendency originates, since they will probably have local historical and genealogical records to confirm your application details.

What are the current challenges to the Vermont Abenakis as a people?

The main challenge is simply societal acceptance as modern Indigenous, native people living in their ancestral homeland. During the 1990s and 2000s, the State of Vermont deployed a disinformation program questioning the Vermont Abenakis genealogy, culture and political organization. This oppression was taken up by the Vermont media from newsprint of broadcast television. Although this genocidal operation was eventually thwarted by proof of an unbroken Indigenous presence in the state, there still remains a subtle question of legitimacy. Upon learning a person is Abenaki, the response is often “You don’t look Indian” or “what is your blood quantum?” This uncertainty puts the Vermont Abenakis in a precarious social position in hiring, retention, accessing grants, or participating in minority programs.

Where can I go to learn more about the Vermont Abenakis?

Probably the best place to start is with the Indigenous Abenaki Communities themselves. Each of the four recognized bands in Vermont have websites and a well developed social media presence that is easy to find online. Some bands have historical and cultural narratives in the website drop down menus, and have a “Contact Us” address if you have more specific questions. In addition, there are two Intertribal organizations that focus on the Vermont Abenakis; the Vermont Abenaki Artists Association and the Vermont Indigenous Heritage Center. Also, there are three State of Vermont organizations that deal, in part, with Vermont Abenaki history or culture. These include the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation, the Vermont Commission on Native American Affairs and the Chimney Point State Historic Site. Each has a web presence and people eager to answer further questions. Lastly, there are four museum exhibits in Vermont that focus on the Abenakis: The Lake Champlain Maritime Museum in Basin Harbor (Vergennes), Burlington’s ECHO Leahy Center for Lake Champlain, the Burlington Airport (second floor) Abenaki Exhibit and the Vermont Indigenous Heritage Center’s “Abenaki Year” exhibit in the Burlington Intervale.

I am not Abenaki, but I want to help the Vermont Abenaki People.

First, you can learn all that you can about Vermont’s First peoples and share that knowledge with others. There are introductory and advanced classes offered to the public by the Vermont Indigenous Heritage Center, and the tribes, museums and Artists Association also have lectures and classes. Knowledge and understanding are a great help by themselves. You can then help by giving of your time or your money. Each tribe, as well as the Vermont Abenaki Artists Association and Abenaki Health and Heritage Inc have nonprofit status or have nonprofits associated with them. Some are very active and need lots of help in preparing and performing their annual cycle of ceremonies and event. Keep an eye on the various Vermont Abenaki organizations discussed throughout this FAQ bulletin to find out what you can do.